BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY

……understanding biology!

Biology is a natural science that is concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. The term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, and the suffix –λογία. Bios means “life” and the suffix, logia means “the study of” according to historical documentation it appears in German (as biologie) as early as 1791, and may be a back-formation from the older word amphibiology (meaning the study of amphibians) by deletion of the initial amphi.

It is a common belief that many of the earliest records of biology come from the bas-reliefs left behind by the Assyrians and Babylonians. For example, Papyrus and artifacts found in tombs and pyramids indicate that the Egyptians possessed considerable, albeit archaic by today's standards, medical knowledge. There is also growing evidence from China and India as early as 2500 BC that there were general practices of therapeutic healing, silkworm use to produce silk, biological control of crops, and agricultural cultivation.

The study of biology shifted dramatically to a belief that every event has a cause and that a particular cause produces a particular effect. This came with the arrival of Greek civilization. These philosophers of science believed that there is the existence of a natural law governing the universe; a law that can be comprehended by man through his use of observation and deduction. Although they established the science of biology, their greatest contribution to science was the idea of rational thought.

Going through the rapid evolution of biological advancements, recent discoveries concerning hereditary mechanisms and genetic engineering have raised ethical issues beyond our previous imagination, and have potential implications that could affect the very existence of life itself. With over 7 billion humans on Earth today, and growing explosively, we are rapidly stretching the limits of our planet to sustain life as we know it. Global warming, depleted food sources, desertification, weather pattern changes, shrinking ozone layers, and rising ocean levels are warning signs of these stresses.

Do we sit down, fold our hands and do nothing to ensure our safety and survival? Of course not! This is where we all have the responsibilities of getting involved. Whether you enter the doors of biological science or sit on the outside, it is imperative that you become informed of the advancements in biology. This will enable you to make intelligent decision at the appropriate time and place.

CAREERS IN BIOLOGY

Over the years biologists have engaged themselves fundamental biological research, and much of the basic biological research done in recent years has dovetailed in new knowledge, including the isolation and identification of genes. In view of the above, biological scientists will be needed to effectively disseminate this knowledge to the larger society, and also to take this knowledge to the next level, which is the understanding of how certain genes function within an entire organism, so that medical treatments can be developed to treat various diseases.

Even pharmaceutical and other firms that are not solely engaged in biotechnology do use biotechnology techniques extensively, spurring increase in employment for biological scientists. Biological scientists are using their knowledge to help farmers increase crop yields by pinpointing genes that can help crops such as wheat grow worldwide in areas that currently are hostile to the crop.

Continued work on chronic diseases should also lead to growing demand for biological scientists. In addition, efforts to discover new and improved ways to clean up and preserve the environment will continue to add to job growth. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environmental impact of industry and government actions and to prevent or correct environmental problems such as the negative effects of pesticide use. Some biological scientists will find opportunities in environmental regulatory agencies, while others will use their expertise to advise lawmakers on legislation to save environmentally sensitive areas.

New industrial applications of biotechnology, such as new methods for making ethanol for transportation fuel, also will spur demand for biological scientists. There will be a high demand for biological scientists specializing in botany, zoology, and marine biology, but opportunities will be limited because of the small size of these fields. Marine biology, despite its attractiveness as a career, is a very small specialty within biological science.

Today is an exciting time to pursue a career in biology. Scientists are better equipped today than ever before to solve biological questions that were once thought unsolvable. Biology is quest- an ever evolving science; once one question is answered, it leads to another.

Here is a list of careers for which a biology background is required or at least very useful:

1. Biotechnology
2. Forensic Science
3. Physiotherapy
4. Pharmacy
5. Optometry
6. Forestry
7. Agricultural science
8. Environmental Consulting
9. Medicine
10.  Dentistry
11.  Chiropractic Medicine
12.  Teaching
13.  Research

This section will provide an in-depth tutelage   on some of the important topics covered in general and advance biology course. Biology can be a difficult course, simply because a lot of material is covered in the course. It is important to note that the degree of difficulty between college biology and high school biology will differ based on the emphasis of detail.

In order to do well, students are required to understand the concepts and to memorize important details. The best way to accomplish this is to review on a daily basis the knowledge of biology gained in the biology section of this site, and also your school biology note for at least 30. Also, try to answer biology problems. Often times, practice problems are very similar to the questions on the exam.

Biology is a fascinating subject. Learning about life on Earth is fun. Biology is the study of life, what life needs to survive, what makes life possible, how life evolves and changes, and how life forms interact with one another.

To get indebt knowledge of biology, we are going to concentrate our studies on the following topics. Click on the links below to begin your learning.

1.     What is Biology?

2.     Branches of biology.

3.     Biology and Biologists.

4.     Homeostasis

5.     Osmosis

6.     Diffusion

7.     pH.

8.   Anatomical science.

9.     Chemistry of Living Things

·        What is chemistry of living things?

·        Elements, Atoms & Molecules

·        Water & Life

·        Chemical compounds and macromolecules

·        Acids, Bases & Buffers

·        Biochemistry.

a)    What is biochemistry?

b)    Medical biochemistry.

c)     Biochemistry and molecular biology.

d)    Molecular biology.

e)     Biochemistry and chemistry.

f)      Biochemistry and physiology.

10.                The Cell and Life Process

§  What is a cell?

§  Cell Theory & Organization

§  Size of cells

§  Types of cells

§  Plant cells

§  Unique properties of plant cells

§  Parts of the cell

§  Purification of hemoglobin

§  Cell Cycle and Mitosis

a)    Cell cycle

b)    Growth

c)     Division 

d)    Regulation

e)     What is Mitosis?

§  Cell division & cancer

§  Cell Energetics

§  Cellular energy currency

§  Enzymes as catalysts

§  Catabolic Pathways

§  Glycolysis

§  Cellular Respiration

§  Cellular Structure and Function

11.               Biological compounds

a)    Macromolecular structure and bonding

b)    Abiotic origin of biological molecules

12.               Enzyme activity

a)    receptor binding

b)    regulation

13.               Major metabolic pathways and regulation

a)    Respiration

b)    Fermentation

c)     Photosynthesis

d)    Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules

e)     Hormonal control and intracellular messengers

14.               Membrane dynamics and cell surfaces

a)    Transport

b)    Endocytosis

c)     Exocytosis

d)    Electrical potentials and neurotransmitters

e)     Mechanisms of cell recognition

f)      cell junctions and plasmodesmata

g)    Cell wall and extracellular matrix

15.                Organelles

a)    Structure

b)    Function

c)     Targeting

16.                Cytoskeleton, motility, and shape

a)    Actin-based systems

b)    Microtubule-based systems

c)     Intermediate filaments

d)    Bacterial flagella and movement

17.                Life processes

18.                Genomes & Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

·        Eukaryotic genomes

·        Bacterial genomes

·        Sexual life cycle & Meiosis

·        Cell biology and genome.

·        Genomes

·        Sexual Reproduction

·        Asexual Reproduction

19.                Genetics and Molecular Biology

§  Genetic foundations

                                                             i.            Genes

                                                           ii.            inheritance

                                                        iii.            Mendelian inheritance

                                                        iv.            Extension of Mendel

                                                           v.            Pedigree analysis

                                                        vi.            Prokaryotic genetics (transformation

                                                      vii.            transduction, and conjugation)

                                                   viii.            Genetic mapping

§  Chromatin and chromosomes

                                                             i.            Nucleosomes

                                                           ii.            Karyotypes

                                                        iii.            Chromosomal aberrations

                                                        iv.            Polytene chromosomes

§  Genome sequence organization

                                                                               i.            Introns and exons; Single-copy and

                                                                             ii.            repetitive DNA

                                                                          iii.            Transposable elements

§  Genome maintenance

                                                                               i.            DNA replication

                                                                             ii.            DNA mutation and repair

§  Gene expression and regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes mechanisms.

                                                                               i.            The operon

                                                                             ii.            Promoters and enhancers

                                                                          iii.            Transcription factors

                                                                          iv.            RNA and protein synthesis

                                                                             v.            Processing and modifications of both RNA and protein

§  Gene expression and regulation

                                                                               i.            Effects

                                                                             ii.            Control of normal development

                                                                          iii.            Cancer and oncogenes

                                                                          iv.            Signaling mechanisms in cells

§  Immuno biology.

                                                                               i.            What is immuno biology

                                                                             ii.            Cellular basis of immunity

                                                                          iii.            Antibody diversity and synthesis

                                                                          iv.            Antigen-antibody interactions

§  Bacteriophages, animal viruses, and plant viruses

                                                                               i.            Viral genomes, replication, and assembly

                                                                             ii.            Virus-host cell interactions

§  Recombinant DNA methodology

                                                                               i.            Restriction endonucleases

                                                                             ii.            Blotting and hybridization

                                                                          iii.            Restriction fragment length polymorphisms

                                                                          iv.            DNA cloning, sequencing, and analysis

                                                                             v.            Polymerase chain reaction

20.                Origins of the Species

·        Speciation

21.                Taxonomy and Classification

§  Systematics

§  History of Life

22.                Microorganisms

§  Viruses

§  Prokaryotes

§  Unicellular eukaryotes

23.                Animal Biology

§  Introduction to animals

a)    Animal diversity

b)    Animal form & function

§  Animal Systems

a)    Skeletons & muscles

b)    Circulatory & respiratory systems

c)     Nervous systems

d)    Endocrine system

e)     Reproduction & development

f)      Digestive and waste systems

g)    Body defenses

24.                Geology.

25.                Optometry.

26.                Zoology.

27.                Physiology.

28.                Physiology and psychology.

29.                Applied biology.

30.                Neuroscience.

31.                Forensic biology.

32.                Pharmaceutical science.

33.                Toxicology.

34.                Environmental biology.

a)    Ecology & Conservation

b)    Ecology

c)     Ecosystems

d)    Conservation biology

35.                Contemporary biology.

36.                Microbes and man.

37.                Plant biology and the Fungi.

§  Fungi & Plant Evolution

a)    The fungi

b)    Plant evolution

§  Plant Structure & Nutrition

a)    Plant structure

b)    Plant nutrition

§  Plant Reproduction, Development & Control

a)    Plant reproduction & development

b)    Plant control

38.                Evolutionary biology.

§  Evolution

a)    Genetic variability

b)    Origins (mutations, linkage, recombination, and chromosomal alterations)

c)     Levels (e.g., polymorphism and heritability)

d)    Spatial patterns (e.g., clines and ecotypes)

e)     Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

§  Evolutionary processes

a)    Gene flow and genetic drift

b)    Natural selection

c)     Levels of selection (e.g. individual and group)

§  Evolutionary consequences

a)    Fitness and adaptation

b)    Speciation

c)     Systematics and phylogeny

d)    Convergence

e)     Divergence and extinction

§  History of life

a)    Origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

b)    Fossil record

c)     Paleontology

d)    Paleoecology

§  Taxonomy

§  Microorganisms

§  Darwin & Evolution

§  Darwin in History

§  Mechanisms of evolution

§  Population Genetics

39.                Genetics.

§  DNA

§  DNA basics

§  RNA

§  DNA to protein

§  Protein synthesis

40.                Immunology and disease.

41.                Organismal Biology

a)    Definition of organismal biology?

§  Animal Structure, Function, and Organization

                                                                                     i.            Exchange with environment

                                                                                   ii.            Nutrient, salt, and water exchange

                                                                                iii.            Gas exchange

                                                                                iv.            Energy

§  Internal transport and exchange

                                                                               i.            Circulatory

                                                                             ii.            Gastrovascular and digestive systems

§  Support and movement

                                                                               i.            Support systems (external, internal and hydrostatic)

                                                                             ii.            Movement systems (flagellar, ciliary,and muscular)

§  Integration and control mechanisms

                                                                               i.            Nervous and endocrine systems

§  Behavior (communication, orientation, learning, and instinct)

§  Metabolic rates (temperature, body size, and activity)

b)    Animal Reproduction and Development

§  Reproductive structures

§  Meiosis, gametogenesis, and fertilization

§  Early development (e.g., polarity, cleavage, and gastrulation)

§  Developmental processes (e.g., induction, determination, differentiation, morphogenesis,and metamorphosis)

§  External control mechanisms (e.g., photoperiod)

c)     Plant Structure, Function, and Organization, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants

§  Tissues, tissue systems, and organs

§  Water transport, including absorption and transpiration

§  Phloem transport and storage

§  Mineral nutrition

§  Plant energetics (e.g., respiration and photosynthesis)

d)    Plant Reproduction, Growth, and Development, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants

§  Reproductive structures

§  Meiosis and sporogenesis

§  Gametogenesis and fertilization

§  Embryogeny and seed development

§  Meristems, growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation

§  Control mechanisms (e.g., hormones, photoperiod, and tropisms)

e)     Diversity of Life

§  Archaebacteria

a)    Morphology

b)    Physiology

c)     Identification

§  Eubacteria (including cyanobacteria)

a)    Morphology

b)    Physiology

c)     Pathology

d)    Identification

§  Protista

a)    Protozoa

b)    Other heterotrophic Protista (slime molds and Oomycota)

c)     Autotrophic Protista

d)    Major distinguishing characteristics

e)     Phylogenetic relationships

f)      Importance (e.g., eutrophication, disease)

§  Fungi

a)    Distinctive features of major phyla (vegetative, asexual, and sexual reproduction)

b)    Generalized life cycles

c)     Importance (e.g., decomposition, biodegradation, antibiotics, and pathogenicity)

d)    Lichens

§  Animalia with emphasis on major phyla

a)    Major distinguishing characteristics

b)    Phylogenetic relationships

§  Plantae with emphasis on major phyla

a)    Alternation of generations

b)    Major distinguishing characteristics

c)     Phylogenetic relationships

42.                Population biology.

43.                Natural selection and classification

44.                Ecology and evolution

a)    Ecology

§  Environment/organism interaction

§  Biogeographic patterns

§  Adaptations to environment

§  Temporal patterns

b)    Behavioral ecology

§  Habitat selection

§  Mating systems

§  Social systems

§  Resource acquisition

c)     Population structure and function

§  Population dynamics/regulation

§  Demography and life history strategies

d)    Communities

§  Interspecific relationships

§  Community structure and diversity

§  Change and succession

e)     Ecosystems

§  Productivity and energy flow

§  Chemical cycling

 
 

45.                Biotechnology.

·        Principles of biotechnology

·        Applications

46.                Biology and mathematics.

47.                Biology and physics.

48.                Biology and computing.

49.                Biology and statistics.

50.                Biological employment.

51.                Biological research.

52.                How to be an exceptional biology student.

53.                Biological questions.

54.                How to answer biology questions.

55.                How to pass biology exams.

56.                How to pass biology test.

57.                How to read a biology text book.

58.                Biology resources.

Biology often overlaps with other sciences; biochemistry and toxicology with biology, chemistry, and medicine; biophysics with biology and physics; stratigraphy with biology and geography; astrobiology with biology and astronomy. Social sciences such as geography, philosophy, psychology and sociology can also interact with biology, for instance, in administration of biological resources, developmental biology, biogeography, evolutionary psychology and ethics.

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Wishing you the best in the study of biology!

 Precious O.U. Ogholaja